Sanitation

Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi Acronyms xxiii Part One Chemistry and Problems of Industrial Water 1 1 Chemistry of Aqueous Solutions 3 1.1 Variables 5 1.1.1 Water 5 1.1.1.1 Hardness 7 1.1.1.2 Salinity 8 1.1.1.3 Alkalinity 8 1.1.1.4 pH 10 1.1.1.5 Conductivity 11 1.1.1.6 Scaling Tendency or Corrosion Tendency 13 1.1.2 Salts 15 1.1.2.1 Precipitation 16 1.1.2.2 Sequestration 19 1.1.2.3 Flocculation 26 1.1.2.4 Dispersion 27 1.1.2.5 Suspension 28 1.1.2.6 Anti-redeposition 30 1.1.3 Stability Constant 31 1.1.3.1 Theoretical Meaning 31 1.1.3.2 Practical Meaning 32 1.1.4 Critical pH 36 1.1.4.1 Effect on Bicarbonates 39 1.1.4.2 Effect on Phosphates 40 1.1.4.3 Effect on Sequestrants 41 1.2 Inorganic Competitors 43 1.2.1 Bicarbonates 43 1.2.1.1 Chemical Mechanism 43 1.2.1.2 Physical Mechanism 44 1.2.2 Silicates 44 1.2.3 Sulfates 45 1.2.4 Aluminates 49 1.2.5 Phosphates 51 1.3 Organic Competitors 53 1.3.1 Proteins 53 1.3.2 Starches 58 1.3.3 Fatty Acids 60 1.3.4 Other Carboxylic Compounds 63 1.3.5 Humic Substances 65 1.4 Self-Protected Contamination 67 1.5 Modifiers Affecting Deposits 68 1.5.1 Heating 69 1.5.1.1 Caramelization 70 1.5.1.2 Carbonization 70 1.5.2 Dehydration 71 1.5.3 Polymerization 72 References 73 2 Chemical-Physical Treatment 77 2.1 Softening 77 2.2 Deionization 79 2.3 Dealkalinization 80 2.4 Reverse Osmosis 81 Reference 82 3 Sequestrants 83 3.1 Definition 83 3.2 Coordination Groups 90 3.3 Sequestration Data 91 3.4 Food Cleaning Sequestrants 93 3.4.1 (Poly)phosphates 93 3.4.1.1 Hexametaphosphate (HEMP) 97 3.4.1.2 Pyrophosphate 98 3.4.1.3 Monomeric Phosphates 99 3.4.1.4 Tripolyphosphate 99 3.4.2 Phosphonates 100 3.4.2.1 Phosphonates and pH 103 3.4.2.2 Stability of Phosphonates 105 3.4.2.3 Phosphonates and Corrosion Inhibition 106 3.4.3 Hydroxy Acids 109 3.4.4 Poly(co-poly)acrylates 118 3.4.5 Aminopolycarboxylic Acids 131 3.4.6 Polysaccharides and Bentonites 143 References 145 Part Two Characterization of Chemicals Used in the Sanitation Process 149 4 Laboratory Tests 151 4.1 Turbidimetric Tests 151 4.1.1 Sequestration Test (Oxalate) 152 4.1.2 Nephelometric Titration 153 4.1.3 Sequestration Test (Hampshire) 153 4.2 Suspension Test 154 4.3 Dispersion Test 155 4.4 Static Test of Scale Forming 155 4.5 Dynamic Test of Scale Formation 156 4.6 Static Test of Scale/Soil Dissolution 157 4.7 Dynamic Test of the Dissolution of Scale/Soil 157 4.8 Chemical Stability Test 157 4.9 Solution Stability 158 4.10 Sequestrant Stability 159 4.11 EDTA and Calcium Titration 159 4.11.1 Titration of EDTA 159 4.11.2 Titration of Calcium Salts 160 References 160 5 Surfactants, Caustics, and Acids 161 5.1 Surfactants 161 5.1.1 HLB 162 5.1.2 Grouping of Surfactants 164 5.1.2.1 Anionic Surfactants 165 5.1.2.2 Nonionic Surfactants 166 5.1.2.3 Cationic Surfactants 167 5.1.2.4 Amphoteric Surfactants 167 5.1.3 Defoamers 168 5.1.4 Wetting Agents 169 5.1.5 Cleaning Agents 172 5.1.6 Disinfectants 172 5.1.7 Structural Boosters 174 5.1.8 Biodegradability and Toxicity 174 5.1.9 BPD and REACh 175 5.2 Caustics 176 5.3 Acids 179 References 181 Part Three Application to the Food Industry 183 6 Bottlewashing 185 6.1 Pre-washing 189 6.2 Caustic Zone 189 6.2.1 Modifications Induced by Alkalinity 190 6.2.2 Label Removal 194 6.2.3 Self-Adhesive Labels 201 6.2.4 Ceramic Labels 202 6.2.5 Mold Removal 204 6.2.6 Plastic Bottles 207 6.2.6.1 Procedure for Testing for Stress Cracking due to Cleaning Solutions 211 6.2.6.2 Procedure for Testing for Haze Suppression 212 6.2.6.3 Procedure for Screening Defoamer Rinsability 212 6.2.7 Exhausted Solution 213 6.2.8 Sequestrants in Washing 214 6.2.8.1 Polyphosphates and Phosphates 215 6.2.8.2 Gluconate and Gluconic Acid 215 6.2.8.3 Phosphonates 216 6.2.8.4 Phosphono-Carboxylate Polymers 217 6.2.8.5 Acrylic Polymers 217 6.2.8.6 EDTA and NTA 217 6.2.8.7 Polysaccharides and Bentonites 219 6.3 Rinse Section 219 6.3.1 Rinse Design and Chemicals Application 221 6.3.1.1 Second Rinse 223 6.3.2 Sequestrants of Rinse 224 6.3.3 Inlet Position 227 6.4 Environmental Impact from Labels 228 6.5 Outcoming Bottles 228 6.5.1 Non-homogeneous Coating of Water on the Bottles 229 6.5.2 Bottles React with Phenolphthalein 229 6.5.3 Bottles Dry Leaving Whitish Streaks or Foggy Glass 230 6.5.4 Homogeneous White Scale Covers Bottles 230 6.5.5 External Non-homogeneous Deposit on the Bottle 230 6.5.6 Bottles Contain Residues 231 6.5.7 Bottles Drain Leaving More than 2 Drops of Water 231 6.5.8 Bottles Sparkling when Just Filled 232 6.5.9 Just-Filled Bottles Contain Micro-Bodies (or Some Time After Filling) 232 6.6 Microbiological Condition of a Bottlewasher 232 6.7 What Can or Cannot Be Cleaned 234 6.7.1 Removable Organic Soils 235 6.7.2 Inorganic Soil Removable with Acids 236 6.8 Concepts of Problem Solving in Cleaning Bottles 236 6.8.1 Glass Bottles 236 6.8.2 Plastic Bottles (PET, PEN) 237 6.8.3 Plastic Bottles (PC-HOD) 238 6.9 Cold Aseptic Filling (CAF) 238 6.9.1 CAF Technology 239 6.9.2 Microbiological Sensitiveness 241 6.9.3 Cleaning Programs 242 References 244 7 Lubrication 247 7.1 Theory of Lubrication 247 7.1.1 Friction 248 7.1.2 Lubricity 250 7.1.3 Variables of Lubrication 253 7.1.3.1 Quantity of Solution on the Track 254 7.1.3.2 Quantity of Lubricant on the Track 254 7.1.3.3 Speed of the Track 255 7.1.3.4 Temperature of the Track 256 7.1.3.5 Friction and Micro-friction 256 7.1.3.6 Dry Tracks 257 7.1.3.7 Bottles, Cans, and Composite Containers (Cartons) 257 7.1.3.8 Type of Beverage 259 7.2 Soap-based Lubrication 260 7.2.1 Buffering Power and Alkalinity Donors 261 7.2.2 Types of Fatty Acids and their Concentration 263 7.2.3 Sequestrants 265 7.2.4 Keeping Tracks Clean 266 7.2.5 Fluidifying and Antigelling 267 7.2.6 Foam Control 268 7.3 Amine-Based Lubricants 269 7.3.1 Types of Lubricating Molecules 270 7.3.2 Anionic Interference 272 7.3.3 Sequestrants 274 7.3.3.1 Glycine 276 7.3.3.2 Lauryldimethylamine [CH3 (lauryl) CH2–N(CH3)2] (LDMA) 277 7.3.3.3 Fatty Alcohol Ethoxy Carboxylate (FAEC) 278 7.3.4 Cleaning and Microbial Control 279 7.3.5 Biofouling in the Delivery Plant 281 7.3.6 Chlorine Dioxide in Preventing Biofouling 283 7.3.7 Foam Control 284 7.4 Imidazoline-Based Lubrication 285 7.5 Lubrication Based on Fatty Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (FQACs) 286 7.6 Silicone-Based Lubricant 288 7.7 Dry Lubrication 290 7.8 Stress Cracking 294 7.9 Concepts of Problem Solving in Lubrication 297 References 299 8 CIP (Cleaning in Place) 301 8.1 CIP Classification 302 8.1.1 Total Loss CIP 302 8.1.2 Partial Recovery CIP 303 8.1.3 Total Recovery CIP 304 8.2 CIP Parameters 304 8.2.1 Flow Velocity 306 8.2.2 Flow Rate 307 8.2.3 Temperature 309 8.3 Dairy 310 8.3.1 Treatment with Heat Exchange 311 8.3.1.1 Conversion of Stainless Steel Oxides 316 8.3.2 Raw Milk Line 316 8.3.3 Separator 318 8.3.4 Churning 319 8.3.5 Curdmaking Process 320 8.4 Processed Food 324 8.4.1 Evaporator 326 8.4.2 Dough-Kneading Machine and Extruder 328 8.4.3 Pasteurizer and Sterilizer 328 8.4.4 Cooking, Baking, and Frying 332 8.4.5 Smoke Chambers 335 8.4.6 Blanching 336 8.4.7 High-Temperature Scraped Sterilizer 338 8.4.8 Fresh Cut Produce (4th Gamme) 339 8.4.8.1 Cleaning and Disinfection Procedures 344 8.4.9 Mechanical Cleaning of Equipment 347 8.5 Winery 349 8.5.1 Cleaning in the Cellar 349 8.5.2 Stabilization of Wine 351 8.5.3 Cleaning and Disinfection of Wooden Barrels 352 8.5.3.1 Disinfection of Wood 353 8.6 Enzymatic Cleaning in Food Detergency 355 8.6.1 Protease 357 8.6.2 Lipase 358 8.6.3 Amylase 358 8.7 Chemicals for Cleaning Tenacious Contamination 358 References 360 9 Acidic Cleaning 363 9.1 Infinite Dilution 364 9.2 Sequestrants 364 9.3 Cleaning of Molds 366 9.4 Cleaning of Chocolate Molds 368 9.5 Acidic Cleaning in a Brewery 370 9.5.1 Acids 372 9.5.2 Sequestrants 372 9.5.3 Surfactants 373 References 373 10 Open Aqueous Systems Exchanging Heat 375 10.1 Tunnel Pasteurizers 375 10.1.1 Deposition and Scale 377 10.1.2 Microbiology 378 10.1.3 Corrosion 378 10.1.4 Dome Staining 381 10.1.5 Chemical Treatments 382 10.1.5.1 Scale and Biofouling 382 10.1.5.2 Corrosion 383 10.1.5.3 Packaging Damage 383 10.2 Cooling Tower 383 References 385 11 Foam and Gel Cleaning 387 11.1 Foam 388 11.2 Gel 390 11.3 Foam-Gel Synergism 390 11.4 Body Structure 393 11.5 Sequestrants 394 11.6 Foam/Gel Free OPC 396 11.7 Practical Problem Solving in OPC 396 11.7.1 Bluish Stains 396 11.7.2 Yellowish-White Stain 397 11.7.3 Fat Removal in Patches 397 11.8 Equipment for Pressure Washing 398 11.8.1 Centralized Equipment 399 11.8.2 Decentralized Equipment 399 11.8.3 Loss in Pressure 400 11.8.4 Loss in Temperature 400 11.8.5 Generation of Aerosol 402 References 402 12 Membrane Cleaning (Crossflow Filtration) 403 12.1 Membrane 406 12.2 Module 410 12.2.1 Plate and Frame 410 12.2.2 Hollow Fibers 411 12.2.3 Tubular 412 12.2.4 Spiral Wound (SW) 413 12.2.5 Pleated 414 12.2.6 Modules 414 12.3 Diafiltration and Chromatography 416 12.4 Electrodialysis 418 12.5 Ultrasound Applied to Membrane Processings 419 12.6 Fields of Application 419 12.7 Cleaning 420 12.7.1 Alkalinity 421 12.7.2 Sequestrants 422 12.7.3 Surfactants 423 12.7.4 Enzymatic Systems 423 12.7.5 Acids 424 12.8 Cleaning Procedures 425 References 427 13 Milk Production 429 13.1 Mastitis 429 13.2 Cow and Milk 431 13.3 Milking CIP 434 13.4 Bulk Milk Tanks 438 13.5 Raw Milk Quality Standards 439 Reference 440 14 Biofilm 441 14.1 Microbiological Background 441 14.2 Formation and Growth of Biofilm 445 14.2.1 Surface Condition 447 14.2.2 Environmental Conditions 448 14.3 Practical Significance 448 14.4 Cleaning and Disinfection 451 14.4.1 Alkaline Cleaning 452 14.4.2 Acidic Cleaning 452 14.4.3 Disinfection 452 References 457 15 Environmental Sanitation 459 15.1 Environmental Particles 459 15.2 Physical Control 462 15.2.1 Air Filtration and Clean Rooms 462 15.2.2 Ultraviolet Radiation 464 15.3 Control by Chemicals 467 15.3.1 Atomization and Aerosolization 467 15.3.2 Chemicals 468 15.3.2.1 Aldehydes 469 15.3.2.2 Nitrogen Derivatives 469 15.4 Mold Control and Prevention 469 References 471 16 Ultrasound Cleaning 473 References 476 17 Corrosion and Corrosion Inhibition 477 17.1 Calculation and Monitoring of Corrosion 477 17.1.1 Intensity and Rate 478 17.1.2 Electrochemistry 479 17.2 Stainless Steel and Chloride 484 17.3 Chromium and Chemicals 486 17.4 Aluminium and Caustics/Acids 488 17.5 Copper and its Alloys 489 17.6 Zinc (Galvanized Steel) 490 17.7 Biofilm 491 17.8 Reliability of Supply 491 17.9 Post-Installation Treatment of Stainless Steel 493 17.9.1 Procedures and Recommendations 495 17.9.2 Example of Complete Program 495 17.9.3 Example of Simplified Program 496 17.9.4 Gaskets 496 References 497 18 Disinfectants and Sanitation Technology 499 18.1 Water 500 18.2 Manufacturing Environment and Types of Microorganisms 502 18.3 Disinfectants 504 18.3.1 Main Disinfectants for the Food Industry 506 18.3.2 Biocides from the Haber-Willstätter Reaction 506 18.3.3 How to Choose a Disinfectant 512 18.3.3.1 Basic Behavior Typifying the Application of Disinfectants 514 18.4 Physical Disinfection 521 18.4.1 Disinfection by Heating 521 18.4.2 Disinfection by UV Radiation 524 18.4.3 Disinfection by Filtration 525 18.4.4 Disinfection by Electrolyzed Water 527 18.4.5 Disinfection by Cold Plasma 529 18.4.6 Disinfection by High Pressure 531 18.4.7 Disinfection by Pulsed Electric Field 532 18.5 Regularity and Perseverance in Sanitation 534 18.6 Sanitation Plan 536 18.6.1 Early Stage 536 18.6.2 Planning 537 18.6.3 Validation 537 18.6.4 Application 537 18.6.4.1 Assessment of the Sanitation Result 538 18.7 Rapid Controls of Sanitation 539 18.7.1 Bioluminometer 540 18.7.2 Proteins Test 540 18.8 European (EN) Microbiological Tests 541 18.8.1 Bactericidal Activity 542 18.8.1.1 EN 1040 542 18.8.1.2 EN 1276 543 18.8.1.3 EN 1656 543 18.8.1.4 EN 13727 543 18.8.2 Fungicidal Activity 543 18.8.2.1 EN 1275 543 18.8.2.2 EN 1650 543 18.8.2.3 EN 1657 544 18.8.2.4 EN 13624 544 18.8.3 Sporicidal Activity 544 18.8.3.1 EN 14347 544 18.8.3.2 EN 13704 544 18.8.4 Main Tests Methodology 544 18.8.4.1 NF EN 1276 Procedure 544 18.8.4.2 NF EN 1650 Procedure 545 18.8.4.3 NF EN 13697 Procedure 546 18.8.4.4 NF EN 13704 Procedure 547 18.9 Hand Washing and Disinfection 547 18.9.1 Handwashing Products Structure 549 18.9.2 Handwashing Disinfectants 550 18.9.2.1 Products Performing Cleaning and Disinfection 551 18.9.2.2 Products for Terminal Disinfection after Washing 552 References 552 19 Waste Water Treatment 555 19.1 Understanding Terms 555 19.2 Purification Process 557 19.2.1 Preliminary Treatments 557 19.2.2 Chemical Treatment 558 19.2.3 Settling, Concentration, and Dewatering 559 19.2.4 Biological Treatment 561 19.2.5 Final Treatments 563 References 564 20 Boiler Treatment 565 20.1 Deaeration and the Generation of Noncorrosive Steam 565 20.1.1 Generation of Noncorrosive Steam 567 20.2 Scale Prevention 568 20.3 Chemical Treatments 571 20.4 Chemical Cleaning 571 References 573 21 Due Diligence (HACCP) 575 Index 577